Europe 1870 - 1907
Prussian victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 (see The Fight at Dame Europa's School) and the subsequent formation of the German Empire made the newly unified Germany the dominant power in Europe. Thus German policy after this time was aimed at maintaining this position and protecting it from potential challenges from France. After their humiliating defeat, and loss of Alsace-Lorraine, France would be seeking revenge (The Treaty of Frankfurt resulted in the loss of Alsace and Lorraine and the payment of 5 billion francs, around $400 mill in war debts/repatriation).
The German Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, saw the answer to this as the diplomatic isolation of France. By isolating France, and ensuring that the country had no allies, Germany would effectively stifle any chance for revenge. Bismarck particularly wanted to make sure that Germany would not be forced to fight on two fronts in a any future war, as this would be fatal for the country. |
The Three Emperor's League
Late nineteenth century Europe was dominated by five great powers - Germany, France, Austria-Hungary, Britain and Russia. Recognising this, Bismarck sought to establish alliances, commenting that “You forget the importance of being a party of three on the European chess-board….Nobody wishes to be in a minority. All politics reduce themselves to this formula: try to be a trois in a world governed by five powers.” Considering that Britain sought neutrality from European entanglements, Bismarck established an alliance with Austria-Hungary and Russia. This would secure Germany from an eastern attack and diplomatically isolate France.
The Three Emperor's League was negotiated in 1873. Under its terms, the three emperors (Wilhelm I, Franz Joseph, Alexander II) agreed to consult each other on matters of international importance and to remain neutral should a fourth nation (i.e. France) attack any of them.
The biggest problem for this alliance was the Balkan region. Austria-Hungary and Russia were in competition to absorb the Balkan states. With rising nationalism against the Ottoman Empire from 1874 and Turkey refusing to negotiate with the Slavic states, Serbia (and Montenegro) declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 30th June 1876.
The Three Emperor's League was negotiated in 1873. Under its terms, the three emperors (Wilhelm I, Franz Joseph, Alexander II) agreed to consult each other on matters of international importance and to remain neutral should a fourth nation (i.e. France) attack any of them.
The biggest problem for this alliance was the Balkan region. Austria-Hungary and Russia were in competition to absorb the Balkan states. With rising nationalism against the Ottoman Empire from 1874 and Turkey refusing to negotiate with the Slavic states, Serbia (and Montenegro) declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 30th June 1876.
Russia supported the Serbs, believing in a pan-Slavic future for the Balkans, where the Slavic states would be united under Russia. Terrible atrocities committed by the Ottomans against the Slavs had resulted in international attention, as thousands of Orthodox Christians were killed. On April 1877 Czar Alexander II declared war on the Ottoman Empire.
The British Prime Minister, William Gladstone, concerned about the balance of power offered naval support to the Ottomans, and war between Britain and Russia seemed inevitable. Before the British intervened, the Russians successfully forced the Ottomans into defeat in March 1878. Austria-Hungary's foreign minister Count Andrassy was not happy with Russia's clear domination over the Balkan region following the war. Austria-Hungary seemed ready to go to war in order to limit Russian influence in this region. |
The Congress of Berlin
Bismarck now had to mediate the dispute between his two allies, and as such he convened a conference of the major European powers at Berlin in 1878. Russia was forced to surrender much of the territory that had been won from the Ottomans.
Of particular importance in the lead up to WWI was the establishment of Serbia as an independent state and the hand over of the formerly Turkish territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary for thirty years (until 1908). These set up conditions that lead to the outbreak of WWI.
The immediate impact was from a growing resentfulness and suspicion from Russia towards German policy.
Of particular importance in the lead up to WWI was the establishment of Serbia as an independent state and the hand over of the formerly Turkish territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary for thirty years (until 1908). These set up conditions that lead to the outbreak of WWI.
The immediate impact was from a growing resentfulness and suspicion from Russia towards German policy.
The Dual Alliance
In response to Russia's hostility after the Congress of Berlin, Bismarck strengthened the links between Germany and Austria-Hungary through a secret treaty that established the Dual Alliance in 1879. Under this alliance, the two countries agreed to help each others if either were attacked by Russia and to remain neutral if attacked by another power (i.e. France) This defensive alliance was to remain a cornerstone of German policy right up until WWI.
The Second Three Emperors' LeagueRussia's only other potential ally in Europe was France, however France's republicanism made it undesirable to autocratic Tsarist Russia. Russia also feared the strengthening ties between Austria-Hungary and Germany, and its potential to influence the Balkans. As a result, Russia sought to renew the Three Emperors' League in 1881 and the alliance was re-established.
The Triple Alliance |
In 1882 the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary became the Triple Alliance with the inclusion of Italy. Italy had come into conflict with France over the North African territory of Tunis. Under the terms of the Triple Alliance, Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to aid Italy is she was attacked by France, Italy was to join Germany if France attacked the latter and to join both Germany and Austria-Hungary if either were attacked by two or more powers. Romania joined the Triple Alliance in 1883 and Turkey joined in 1914.
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The Reinsurance Treaty
In 1887 the Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy was renewed. However, tension over the Balkan region between Austria-Hungary and Russia, and in particular over the influence both wished to exert over Bulgaria, resulted in Russia refusing to renew the Three Emperors' League. Bismarck's response was to negotiate the Reinsurance Treaty in June 1887 between Germany and Russia, the object of which was to keep the alliance with Russia alive. The terms of the treaty related to neutrality if one country was attacked by another.
Bismarck has successfully isolated France diplomatically, tying itself to two of the great powers of Europe - Russia and Austria-Hungary - and a lesser power - Italy. Britain remained outside the European alliances and thus France was left isolated. Germany was diplomatically secure, safe from attack on two fronts, and at the centre of an alliance of three powers - a powerful position.
Bismarck has successfully isolated France diplomatically, tying itself to two of the great powers of Europe - Russia and Austria-Hungary - and a lesser power - Italy. Britain remained outside the European alliances and thus France was left isolated. Germany was diplomatically secure, safe from attack on two fronts, and at the centre of an alliance of three powers - a powerful position.
Bismarck Leaves
The successful, yet complicated system of alliances that Bismarck had set ended in 1890.
Germany had a new kaiser, Wilhelm II. He wanted to control foreign policy himself, and maneuvered Bismarck into resigning. Without Bismarck's guidance, German policy began to change. The new chancellor General Count Leo von Caprivi and Wilhelm II refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1890. This was primarily done to simplify the alliance obligations and with the desire of drawing Britain into the Triple Alliance. As Russia and Britain were hostile to one another, by moving away from Russia, Britain might be more open to becoming an ally. This decision would be a fateful one for Germany. |
The Dual Entente
In response Russia turned to France. Agreeing in 1891 to discuss threats to European peace, and drawing up an agreement to provide mutual aid if attacked by Germany in 1892. They officially became allies in 1894. This became known as the Dual Entente.
At the same time, an alliance between Britain and Germany was a real possibility. France and Russia were colonial rivals of Britain in Africa and Asia. However, Britain was beginning to become concerned about Germany for a number of reasons, particularly issues around Britain's colonies, with Germany supporting the Boers, and their increasing naval influence. Wilhelm II and his ministers effectively had begun to free France from Bismarck's policy of diplomatic isolation. France secretly negotiated with Italian between 1900 and 1902, ensuring that Italy wouldn't join Germany in a war with France, effectively removing Italy from the Triple Alliance. This left Britain still unallied. |
The Entente Cordiale
Britain's growing concern over Germany's developing naval fleet resulted in the following of a 'three-power standard', meaning that their navy had to be as large as the next three largest fleets in the world combined. Recognising that Britain was moving towards joining a European alliance, with a growing unease towards Germany's policies, France signed an agreement in 1904 that settled the differences that had arisen over their colonial interests. France agreed not to interfere with the British in Egypt and the latter would not oppose the French in Morocco. This was the Entente Cordiale. A similar settlement, the Anglo-Russian Entente, was also made between Britain and Russia in 1907, resolving their issues in Afghanistan and Persia. The link between these three powers that was created as a result of the two agreements became known as the Triple Entente.
For more about the Entente Cordiale.
For more about the Entente Cordiale.